{"id":14390,"date":"2012-06-25T16:55:19","date_gmt":"2012-06-25T16:55:19","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/173.230.141.246\/dcc\/wpdemo\/?p=14390"},"modified":"2025-06-03T19:38:44","modified_gmt":"2025-06-03T19:38:44","slug":"the-crusades-motivations-administration-and-cultural-influence","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/?p=14390","title":{"rendered":"The Crusades: Motivations, Administration, and Cultural Influence"},"content":{"rendered":"\n<div class=\"wp-block-getwid-tabs\" data-active-tab=\"0\"><ul class=\"wp-block-getwid-tabs__nav-links\"><\/ul>\n<div class=\"wp-block-getwid-tabs__nav-link\"><span class=\"wp-block-getwid-tabs__title-wrapper\"><a href=\"#\"><span class=\"wp-block-getwid-tabs__title\">Essay<\/span><\/a><\/span><\/div><div class=\"wp-block-getwid-tabs__tab-content-wrapper\"><div class=\"wp-block-getwid-tabs__tab-content\">\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Introduction<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The Crusades were a series of religious and political wars fought between 1096 and 1291 for control of the Holy Land. Pope Urban II initiated the First Crusade (1096\u20131102) in order to aid the Christian Byzantine Empire, which was under attack by Muslim Seljuk Turks. As a result of this crusade, Europeans captured Jerusalem in 1099. Muslims quickly unified against the Christian invading and occupying force and the two groups battled in subsequent wars for control of the Holy Land. By 1291 the Muslims firmly controlled Jerusalem and the coastal areas, which remained in Islamic hands until the twentieth century.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The crusading movement involved men and women from every country in Europe and touched upon almost every aspect of daily life, from the Church and religious thought, to politics and economics. It also found its way into the arts, as patrons and artists from diverse backgrounds and traditions were brought together to create new forms of expression. Frescos, mosaics, sculptures, and even coins reflected a blend of Western (Latin\/Catholic) and Eastern (Byzantine\/Eastern Christian) traditions. Crusaders appeared in histories as well as in French and German epic poetry from the twelfth century, such as the <em>Chanson d\u2019Antioche<\/em>, an account of the 1098 siege in Antioch.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-pullquote\"><blockquote><p>The crusading movement involved men and women from every country in Europe and touched upon almost every aspect of daily life, from the Church and religious thought, to politics and economics.<\/p><\/blockquote><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Christians understood the Crusades as a path to salvation for those who participated. As the French monk Guilbert of Nogent wrote in his twelfth century chronicle of the Crusades, \u201cGod has instituted in our time holy wars, so that the order of knights and the crowd running in its wake\u2026 might find a new way of gaining salvation. And so they are not forced to abandon secular affairs completely by choosing the monastic life or any religious profession, as used to be the custom, but can attain in some measure God\u2019s grace while pursuing their own careers, with the liberty and in the dress to which they are accustomed.\u201d Those who \u201ctook up the cross\u201d were recipients of both <em>spiritual<\/em> and <em>earthly<\/em> rewards. The spiritual reward was the indulgence, or the forgiveness, of sins. The earthly rewards included plunder from conquest, forgiveness of debts, and freedom from taxes, as well as fame and political power. Crusaders did not only fight for control of the Holy Land; they also worked to secure the Church\u2019s power in Europe. Like the wars against the Muslims, these conflicts were promoted by various popes in Christ\u2019s name and led by crusaders who took vows and received special privileges and indulgences. The \u201cenemies\u201d of the Church in Europe included people who were not Christians. It also included Christians who were labeled heretics, that is, people who challenged the official teachings of the Church or who questioned the pope\u2019s power and authority.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Millions of people, Christian and non-Christian, soldiers and noncombatants lost their lives during the Crusades. In addition to the enormous loss of life, the debt incurred and other economic costs associated with the multiple excursions to the Middle East impacted all levels of society, from individual families and villages, to budding nation-states. The wars also resulted in the destruction of cities and towns that lay in the crusaders\u2019 wake. In his <em>Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire<\/em>, Edward Gibbon refers to the Crusades as an event in which \u201cthe lives and labours of millions, which were buried in the East, would have been more profitably employed in the improvement of their native country.\u201d<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Beginning in 1095 with Pope Urban II\u2019s proclamation and concluding, according to some historians, with Napoleon\u2019s conquest of Malta in 1798, the Crusades had a lasting impact on European and Middle Eastern culture and politics that still continues to this day. The following documents offer insight into the religious and social motivations and benefits for undertaking a crusade, as well as a glimpse into the more mundane administrative details required to make this transcontinental excursion to the Holy Land. They also suggest how the Crusades were both commemorated and criticized in literature and history for centuries after they had ended.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><em>Please consider the following questions as you review the documents:<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>What were Western Christian religious beliefs, political relationships, and personal values during the Middle Ages?<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>How did the motives, organization, and effects of the Crusades change over time?<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>How have writers from the eleventh century on criticized the Crusaders\u2019 goals and actions?<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">The Call to Crusade<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In the years approaching the twelfth century, some Christians began to believe that an individual\u2019s thoughts and meditations\u2014in addition to one\u2019s actions\u2014were an important indicator of piety and goodness. Devout Christians increasingly pursued religious pilgrimages, or journeys, to the places where Jesus lived, died, and was buried. At the time of the First Crusade, the Church taught that an individual\u2019s sins could be remedied, at least in theory, by acts of penance that demonstrated remorse and a desire for forgiveness. As communications through Central Europe improved, and Italian trade in the Mediterranean increased, more Western European people than ever before could journey or make a pilgrimage to the Holy Land and seek penance for past sins. The First Crusade, proposed by Pope Urban II in 1095, was undertaken by many as a devotional act of pilgrimage.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">A literal transcription of Urban\u2019s words at Clermont does not exist, however there are multiple recorded versions of the speech. This version was written by the priest Fulcher of Chartes, who was most likely present when Urban spoke at Clermont. Fulcher of Chartes traveled to Constantinople during the First Crusade and witnessed the events that he describes in his famous chronicles.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image aligncenter size-large\"><a href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/nby_607498\"><img fetchpriority=\"high\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"1024\" height=\"807\" src=\"https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Speech_of_Urban_pp4_5_mod-1024x807.jpg\" alt=\"Double-page spread of printed text.\" class=\"wp-image-13112\" srcset=\"https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Speech_of_Urban_pp4_5_mod-1024x807.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Speech_of_Urban_pp4_5_mod-300x236.jpg 300w, https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Speech_of_Urban_pp4_5_mod-scaled-600x473.jpg 600w, https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Speech_of_Urban_pp4_5_mod-768x605.jpg 768w, https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Speech_of_Urban_pp4_5_mod-1536x1210.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Speech_of_Urban_pp4_5_mod-2048x1614.jpg 2048w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\"><a href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/nby_607498\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Speech of Urban II at Claremont (November 26, 1095), <em>Translations and Reprints from the Original Sources of History<\/em>, 13 (1984)<\/a><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><em>Questions to Consider:<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ol class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>What task does Urban II place before the Christian people of Europe? What is the spiritual purpose of this task? What is the political purpose?<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>What is the \u201ctwofold reward\u201d for undertaking this task? What punishments could result from inaction? Who will receive these rewards or benefit from them?<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>What does Urban, or the Church as a whole, stand to gain by the Crusades? How will the Crusades affect the pope\u2019s or the Church\u2019s in Europe and the world?<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Christian Devotion and Reward in the Crusades<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The Church promoted taking the cross and going on to the Holy Land as a demonstration of Christian love and devotion to God. Likewise, knights were taught that to be a good Christian knight, one must undertake acts of love and charity. Among these acts of charity were \u201cLove of God\u201d and \u201cLove of Neighbor.\u201d Defending the Holy Land and protecting Christians in their time of need were seen as acts of loving one\u2019s neighbor. Bernard of Clairvoix, commenting on the Muslim victories in the Holy Land wrote, \u201cIf we harden our hearts and pay little attention\u2026 where is our love of God, where is our love for our neighbor?\u201d While there were additional motivations for taking up the cross\u2014opportunity for economic or political gain, desire for adventure, and the feudal obligation to follow one\u2019s lord into battle\u2014to become a soldier for Christ was to express total devotion to God. According to historian Jonathan Riley-Smith, taking up the cross was based on Christ\u2019s statement: \u201cWhoever doth not carry his cross and come after me, cannot be my disciple\u201d (Luke 14. 27). Underscoring this belief, priests encouraged participation in the Crusades by praising acts of devotion to God and invoking fear of the last judgment for failure to act.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">This poem portrays the Crusades as the ultimate act of Christian devotion:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h5 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/nby_223688\" target=\"_blank\">Anonymous, &#8220;You Who Love,&#8221; in <em>Les chansons de croisade<\/em>, 20-22 (c.<\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/nby_223688\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\"> <\/a><a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/nby_223688\" target=\"_blank\">1189)<\/a><\/h5>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-jetpack-slideshow aligncenter\" data-effect=\"slide\"><div class=\"wp-block-jetpack-slideshow_container swiper-container\"><ul class=\"wp-block-jetpack-slideshow_swiper-wrapper swiper-wrapper\"><li class=\"wp-block-jetpack-slideshow_slide swiper-slide\"><figure><img decoding=\"async\" width=\"879\" height=\"752\" alt=\"Two-page spread of printed text.\" class=\"wp-block-jetpack-slideshow_image wp-image-13305\" data-id=\"13305\" src=\"https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Les_chansons_de_croisade__pg_20-21_mod.jpg\" srcset=\"https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Les_chansons_de_croisade__pg_20-21_mod.jpg 879w, https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Les_chansons_de_croisade__pg_20-21_mod-600x513.jpg 600w, https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Les_chansons_de_croisade__pg_20-21_mod-300x257.jpg 300w, https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Les_chansons_de_croisade__pg_20-21_mod-768x657.jpg 768w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 879px) 100vw, 879px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-block-jetpack-slideshow_caption gallery-caption\">Anonymous, &#8220;You Who Love,&#8221; in Les chansons de croisade, 20-21 (c. 1189)<\/figcaption><\/figure><\/li><li class=\"wp-block-jetpack-slideshow_slide swiper-slide\"><figure><img decoding=\"async\" width=\"642\" height=\"1002\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-block-jetpack-slideshow_image wp-image-20719\" data-id=\"20719\" src=\"https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/11\/Les_chansons_de_croisade_pg_22-23_mod.jpg\" srcset=\"https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/11\/Les_chansons_de_croisade_pg_22-23_mod.jpg 642w, https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/11\/Les_chansons_de_croisade_pg_22-23_mod-300x468.jpg 300w, https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/11\/Les_chansons_de_croisade_pg_22-23_mod-600x936.jpg 600w, https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/11\/Les_chansons_de_croisade_pg_22-23_mod-192x300.jpg 192w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 642px) 100vw, 642px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-block-jetpack-slideshow_caption gallery-caption\">Anonymous, &#8220;You Who Love,&#8221; in Les chansons de croisade, 22 (c. 1189)<\/figcaption><\/figure><\/li><\/ul><a class=\"wp-block-jetpack-slideshow_button-prev swiper-button-prev swiper-button-white\" role=\"button\"><\/a><a class=\"wp-block-jetpack-slideshow_button-next swiper-button-next swiper-button-white\" role=\"button\"><\/a><a aria-label=\"Pause Slideshow\" class=\"wp-block-jetpack-slideshow_button-pause\" role=\"button\"><\/a><div class=\"wp-block-jetpack-slideshow_pagination swiper-pagination swiper-pagination-white\"><\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-getwid-toggle has-icon-left\">\n<div class=\"wp-block-getwid-toggle__row\"><div class=\"wp-block-getwid-toggle__header-wrapper\"><span class=\"wp-block-getwid-toggle__header\"><a href=\"#\"><span class=\"wp-block-getwid-toggle__header-title\"><strong>Translation of &#8220;You Who Love&#8221;<\/strong><\/span><span class=\"wp-block-getwid-toggle__icon is-active\"><i class=\"fas fa-plus\"><\/i><\/span><span class=\"wp-block-getwid-toggle__icon is-passive\"><i class=\"fas fa-minus\"><\/i><\/span><\/a><\/span><\/div><div class=\"wp-block-getwid-toggle__content-wrapper\"><div class=\"wp-block-getwid-toggle__content\">\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">[I.]<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">You who love with true love, awake! Sleep no more!<br>The lark tells us know that the day is here<br>And tells us in her songs<br>That the day of peace has come<br>Which God, in his great tenderness,<br>Will give to those who for love of him<br>Take the cross and for their burden<br>Suffer pain both night and day. <br>Then he will see who truly love him.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">[II.]<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Anyone deserves to be condemned<br>Who has deserted his lord in need.<br>So will he be, remember it well.<br>He will have much pain and much insult<br>On the Day of our Last Judgment<br>When God his sides, palms and feet<br>Will show bleeding and wounded.<br>For even he who has done his best<br>Will be so sore afraid<br>That he will tremble, whether he wants to or not.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">[III.]<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">He who was put on the cross for us<br>Did not love us with a simulated love.<br>He loved us like the finest friend<br>And lovingly for us<br>Carried with so much anguish<br>The holy cross very gently<br>Between his arms, before his breast,<br>Like a gentle lamb, simple and devout.<br>Then he was nailed with three nails<br>Painfully through his hands and through his feet.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">[IV.]<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">I have heard it said proverbially,<br>\u2018A sensible merchant spends money from his purse;\u2019<br>And, \u2018He has a fickle heart<br>Who sees what is good and chooses what is evil\u2019.<br>Do you know what God has promised<br>To those who wish to take the cross?<br>God help me, a very fair wage:<br>Paradise, by firm promise.<br>He who can gain his prize<br>If mad if he waits until tomorrow.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">[V.]<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">For us there is no tomorrow,<br>We can be sure of that.<br>Many a man imagines that he has a very healthy heart<br>And four days later he can no longer prize<br>Either all his goods or his knowledge<br>When he sees that death holds him on a rein,<br>So that neither foot nor hand<br>Can he move to shake it off or remove it.<br>He leaves his feather-bed and takes to the straw litter,<br>But realizes his mistake too late.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Translated in Louise and Jonathan Riley-Smith, <em>The Crusades: Idea and Reality, 1095-1274<\/em> (London: Edward Arnold), 89-90.<\/p>\n<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Popes and kings granted special privileges to crusaders to reinforce this message. Initially, Pope Urban II promised forgiveness of sins to those who took up the cross. However, as the wars continued, Church and political leaders found that they had to promise additional benefits, beyond the spiritual, to encourage participation. These benefits included forgiveness of debts and interest payments, protection of property and family, even different courts of justice for those crusaders who commit criminal acts.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">This document is an account of the privileges granted to crusaders by Pope Eugene III:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image aligncenter size-full\"><a href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/nby_607498-2\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"711\" height=\"916\" src=\"https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Privileges_granted_pg_12-13_mod.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-13306\" srcset=\"https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Privileges_granted_pg_12-13_mod.jpg 711w, https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Privileges_granted_pg_12-13_mod-300x386.jpg 300w, https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Privileges_granted_pg_12-13_mod-600x773.jpg 600w, https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Privileges_granted_pg_12-13_mod-233x300.jpg 233w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 711px) 100vw, 711px\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\"><a href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/nby_607498-2\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">&#8220;Privileges Granted by [Pope] Eugene III, 1146&#8221; in <em>Translations and Reprints from the Original Sources of History<\/em>, 13 (1984)<\/a><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><em>Questions to Consider:<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ol class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>According to Pope Eugene III, what types of actions will the Church take on behalf of crusaders?<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Review the privileges granted to crusaders outlined in this document. Hypothesize the types of problems encountered by families when a member went on crusade.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>How does this document reveal the relationship between Church spiritual and secular (non-religious) authority?<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>What is the message of the poem \u201cYou Who Love with True Love\u201d?<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>The poet writes, \u201cA sensible merchant spends money from his purse.\u201d What is implied by this line?<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>According to the poem, what is promised to those who take up the cross? What lies ahead for those who procrastinate?<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>How does a Christian\u2019s devotion to God compare to the feudal relationship between a lord and vassal?<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\"> Images of the Crusades<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image alignright size-large is-resized\"><a href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/nby_377864\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"653\" height=\"1024\" src=\"https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Frontispiece_Historie_of_Holy_Warre_modified-653x1024.jpg\" alt=\"Frontispiece with large engraved image. It shows a depiction of the Crusades that emphasizes how many people died. Men walk down a twisting path on the left-hand side of the image, and many are killed by angels and men wearing turbans on the right. At the top left of the image is a bucket labeled &quot;We went out full.&quot; At the top right of the image is a bucket labeled &quot;But return empty.&quot; Above this image are two portraits, on the left a European knight in armor, and on the right, an Ottoman soldier wearing a breastplate and turban.\" class=\"wp-image-13108\" style=\"width:280px;height:439px\" srcset=\"https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Frontispiece_Historie_of_Holy_Warre_modified-653x1024.jpg 653w, https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Frontispiece_Historie_of_Holy_Warre_modified-300x471.jpg 300w, https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Frontispiece_Historie_of_Holy_Warre_modified-600x941.jpg 600w, https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Frontispiece_Historie_of_Holy_Warre_modified-191x300.jpg 191w, https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Frontispiece_Historie_of_Holy_Warre_modified-768x1205.jpg 768w, https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Frontispiece_Historie_of_Holy_Warre_modified.jpg 842w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 653px) 100vw, 653px\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">The Latin phrase <em>Vestigia pauca retrorfum <\/em>means &#8220;few lived to return.&#8221; <a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/nby_377864\" target=\"_blank\">Thomas Fuller, <em>Historie of the Holy Warre<\/em>, frontispiece (1639)<\/a><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">British interest in the Crusades increased following the translation of Italian poet Torquato Tasso\u2019s <em>Gerusalemme liberata<\/em> (\u201cJerusalem Delivered\u201d) into English in 1600. In 1639 Thomas Fuller, an English historian, published the first, modern, full-length account of the Crusades in English. Three more editions of his four-volume <em>History of the Holy Warre<\/em> appeared within the next decade. Fuller researched his subject extensively, drew on numerous sources, and included maps and a supplemental commentary in his history. Fuller was sharply critical of the papacy for promoting the Crusades and devoted nine chapters of <em>The History of the Holy Warre<\/em> to describing their failure.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">At right is the frontispiece of the first edition of Fuller\u2019s history. A portrait of Baldwin, King of the Crusader state of Jerusalem (1100\u20131118), appears on the top left of the image and, to the right, a portrait of Saladin, the Muslim sultan who defeated the crusaders and captured Jerusalem in 1187. The image below the portraits shows the crusaders\u2019 advance and retreat between Europe and Jerusalem, and the words, \u201cWe went out full but returned empty.\u201d The Latin phrase <em>Vestigia pauca retrorfum<\/em> in the upper right of the image means \u201cfew lived to return home.\u201d<\/p>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image alignright size-full is-resized\"><a href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/nby_304925-3\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"381\" height=\"584\" src=\"https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Crusaders-Saracens.jpg\" alt=\"Reproduction of a colored medieval manuscript illustration showing three white European knights in armor on horses talking to three bearded, darker-skinned men on foot. The darker-skinned men are barefoot and wear long tunics.\" class=\"wp-image-13308\" style=\"width:256px;height:393px\" srcset=\"https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Crusaders-Saracens.jpg 381w, https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Crusaders-Saracens-300x460.jpg 300w, https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Crusaders-Saracens-196x300.jpg 196w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 381px) 100vw, 381px\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\"><a href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/nby_304925-3\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">&#8220;Crusaders &amp; Saracens in Conference,&#8221; in <em>Chronicles of the Crusades<\/em> (1848)<\/a><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">British publisher Henry George Bohn included the image at right as the frontispiece to his <em>Chronicles of the Crusades<\/em>. Bohn writes that the image is a reproduction from a fourteenth-century illuminated manuscript. It portrays an event in 1270, when three French knights \u201cwere accosted by three Saracen knights requesting baptism.\u201d While the Frenchmen spoke with the Saracens (or Muslims), they were attacked, and \u201csixty Christians were slain before the infidels were put to flight.\u201d<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><em>Questions to Consider:<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ol class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>Fuller\u2019s illustration is a map of the Third Crusade. Describe the various groups that are represented here. Who is taking this journey?<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Describe the two men portrayed at the top of the image. How do you interpret the meaning of the text surrounding the portraits?<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Explain the symbolism of the two buckets at the top of the image. What is implied by the phrase \u201cWe went full but returned empty\u201d?<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Describe the image of \u201cCrusaders &amp; Saracens in Conference.\u201d How do the French knights and the Muslims appear? What do their clothes and postures convey?<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Why do you think this event\u2014in which Muslims who appeared to embrace Christianity acted as decoys before a military assault\u2014seemed significant to historians of the Crusades?<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Logistics of a Crusade<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">While anyone could join in a crusade, it became clear in later crusades that success often depended on having well-qualified personnel on the battlefield. Those best prepared came from the warrior classes: the knights, heavy cavalry (armored front-line troops), and support personnel such as bowmen, foot soldiers, and siege engineers. Other strategic personnel included those with special skills, including priests who were literate and could perform church rituals as well as administrative tasks, merchants who controlled the supplies, surgeons, and members of the crusader lord\u2019s household staff. In later crusades, sailors were crucial as the journey to the Holy Land involved sea voyages. However, the knights were the core of the crusading forces, and it was under their leadership that the armies were organized.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Participating in a crusade became widely accepted as an important feature of knightly behavior. Deciding who would go on crusade was dictated by the social and political structure of the region. If a king \u201ctook up the cross\u201d or undertook a crusade, it was assumed that those in his circle would be obligated to join him out of political loyalty or duty to him, rather than as an expression of religious devotion. As one knight observed in Jean de Joinville\u2019s account of the Crusades, \u201cif we do not take up the cross, we shall lose the favor of the king; if we do take it, we shall lose God\u2019s favor, since we shall not be taking it for his sake, but through fear of displeasing the king.\u201d<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Kinship also influenced participation in a crusade. It was common for sons to accompany fathers, brothers to go with brothers, or uncles with nephews. The decision of which family members would take up the cross, and which would remain behind was often made collectively. The family members who remained behind were tasked with the maintenance and administration of the family property and position.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The Crusades, like all wars, were extremely expensive. For example, Louis IX spent an estimated 3,000,000 livres, or 12 times his annual income, on his first crusade in 1248 until his return in 1254. Expenses included provisions for Louis and his household, wages for the knight and soldiers, replacement and purchase of horses, mules and camels, shipping, gifts to crusaders, and Louis\u2019 ransom after he was taken prisoner by the Egyptians in April 1250. Individual lords were also expected to contribute toward the costs of the crusade and ransom. Paying for the war was a continual concern for all those involved. Though there was the opportunity for plunder, the costs of the crusade were rarely offset by the captured treasure.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The following document identifies the knights who accompanied Louis IX on his first crusade (1217\u20131221) and describes their terms of agreement. It was published in the nineteenth century as an appendix to an English edition of Jean de Joinville\u2019s <em>Life of Saint Louis<\/em>, which Joinville completed in 1309. Joinville was a counselor and close friend to the king. He led a successful effort to have Louis canonized (or deemed a saint) by the Catholic Church after Louis\u2019 death in 1270.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image aligncenter size-large\"><a href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/nby_304925-2\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"1024\" height=\"864\" src=\"https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Joinville_List_of_knights_pp532_533-1024x864.jpg\" alt=\"Two-page spread of printed text.\" class=\"wp-image-13111\" srcset=\"https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Joinville_List_of_knights_pp532_533-1024x864.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Joinville_List_of_knights_pp532_533-300x253.jpg 300w, https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Joinville_List_of_knights_pp532_533-scaled-600x506.jpg 600w, https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Joinville_List_of_knights_pp532_533-768x648.jpg 768w, https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Joinville_List_of_knights_pp532_533-1536x1296.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Joinville_List_of_knights_pp532_533-2048x1728.jpg 2048w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\"><a href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/nby_304925-2\">Jean de Joinville, &#8220;Knights Who Accompanied Saint Louis in his Expedition to Palestine,&#8221; (1217) in <em>Chronicles of the Crusades<\/em>, 532-533 (1848)<\/a><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><em>Questions to Consider:<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ol class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>What information does this list record? Why was this type of record keeping necessary?<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>What does the document tell you about the organization and logistics of a crusade?<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>How does it reflect lessons learned from previous crusades?<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Critical Perspectives on the Crusades<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The following poems offer critical perspectives on the Crusades from writers who lived through them. The first document, below, is an excerpt from Jean de Joinville\u2019s <em>Life of Saint Louis<\/em> (published as Lord de Joinville\u2019s <em>Memoirs of Louis IX, King of France<\/em> in this 1848 English edition). Joinville accompanied Louis IX of France on his first crusade (1217\u20131221) and was captured alongside the king when the Egyptians defeated the Christian army at al-Mansura, Egypt, in 1250. Joinville attributed these words to the Muslim poet Essahib-Gi\u00e9mal-Edden-Ben-Matroub.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image aligncenter size-large\"><a href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/nby_304925\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"1024\" height=\"839\" src=\"https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Joinville_Arabian_account_pp554_555_mod-1024x839.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-13110\" srcset=\"https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Joinville_Arabian_account_pp554_555_mod-1024x839.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Joinville_Arabian_account_pp554_555_mod-300x246.jpg 300w, https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Joinville_Arabian_account_pp554_555_mod-scaled-600x491.jpg 600w, https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Joinville_Arabian_account_pp554_555_mod-768x629.jpg 768w, https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Joinville_Arabian_account_pp554_555_mod-1536x1258.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Joinville_Arabian_account_pp554_555_mod-2048x1678.jpg 2048w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\"><a href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/nby_304925\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Essahib-Gi\u00e9mal-Edden-Ben-Matroub &#8220;Words for the King, July 21, 1270,&#8221; in <em>Chronicles of the Crusades<\/em>, 554-555 (1848)<\/a><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The second poem below was composed in 1267 by a trouv\u00e8re known as Rutebeuf. Its original French title is \u201cLa Disputation du Crois\u00e9 et du D\u00e9crois\u00e9,\u201d or \u201cArgument between Crusader and Non-crusader.\u201d Trouv\u00e8res were poets and minstrels working in northern France during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. While their poems and songs primarily focused on the theme of courtly love, the trouv\u00e8res turned their attention to the Crusades as well. This witty minstrel flourished during the reign of Louis IX, to whom many of his works are dedicated. At the time this poem was written, people began to question the value of participating in a crusade. However, Louis had already decided to go on his second crusade (1269\u20131272), much to the unhappiness of his wife, many of his ministers and members of the clergy, and even some of his subjects. Rutebeuf did not want to anger the monarch by criticizing his plans, and possibly risk the loss of his patronage, so he presented the argument about taking up the cross in a dialogue form. Louis IX died in Tunisia in 1270 during this second crusade.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h5 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><a href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/nby_544595\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Rutebeuf, &#8220;The Crusaders,&#8221; (1267) in <em>The History of the Crusades<\/em>, 458-460 (1820)<\/a><\/h5>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-jetpack-slideshow aligncenter\" data-effect=\"slide\"><div class=\"wp-block-jetpack-slideshow_container swiper-container\"><ul class=\"wp-block-jetpack-slideshow_swiper-wrapper swiper-wrapper\"><li class=\"wp-block-jetpack-slideshow_slide swiper-slide\"><figure><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"1024\" height=\"852\" alt=\"Two-page spread of printed text\" class=\"wp-block-jetpack-slideshow_image wp-image-13109\" data-id=\"13109\" src=\"https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Mills_Crusaders1_pp458_459-1024x852.jpg\" srcset=\"https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Mills_Crusaders1_pp458_459-1024x852.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Mills_Crusaders1_pp458_459-300x250.jpg 300w, https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Mills_Crusaders1_pp458_459-scaled-600x499.jpg 600w, https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Mills_Crusaders1_pp458_459-768x639.jpg 768w, https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Mills_Crusaders1_pp458_459-1536x1278.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Mills_Crusaders1_pp458_459-2048x1704.jpg 2048w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-block-jetpack-slideshow_caption gallery-caption\">Retubeuf, &#8220;The Crusaders&#8221; (1267) in The History of the Crusades, 458-459 (1820)<\/figcaption><\/figure><\/li><li class=\"wp-block-jetpack-slideshow_slide swiper-slide\"><figure><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"618\" height=\"1024\" alt=\"Single page of printed text\" class=\"wp-block-jetpack-slideshow_image wp-image-20721\" data-id=\"20721\" src=\"https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/11\/RecoverypossessionHolyLand460-618x1024.jpg\" srcset=\"https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/11\/RecoverypossessionHolyLand460-618x1024.jpg 618w, https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/11\/RecoverypossessionHolyLand460-scaled-300x497.jpg 300w, https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/11\/RecoverypossessionHolyLand460-scaled-600x994.jpg 600w, https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/11\/RecoverypossessionHolyLand460-181x300.jpg 181w, https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/11\/RecoverypossessionHolyLand460-768x1272.jpg 768w, https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/11\/RecoverypossessionHolyLand460-928x1536.jpg 928w, https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/11\/RecoverypossessionHolyLand460-1237x2048.jpg 1237w, https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/11\/RecoverypossessionHolyLand460-scaled.jpg 1546w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 618px) 100vw, 618px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-block-jetpack-slideshow_caption gallery-caption\">Retubeuf, &#8220;The Crusaders&#8221; (1267) in The History of the Crusades, 460 (1820)<\/figcaption><\/figure><\/li><\/ul><a class=\"wp-block-jetpack-slideshow_button-prev swiper-button-prev swiper-button-white\" role=\"button\"><\/a><a class=\"wp-block-jetpack-slideshow_button-next swiper-button-next swiper-button-white\" role=\"button\"><\/a><a aria-label=\"Pause Slideshow\" class=\"wp-block-jetpack-slideshow_button-pause\" role=\"button\"><\/a><div class=\"wp-block-jetpack-slideshow_pagination swiper-pagination swiper-pagination-white\"><\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><em>Questions to Consider:<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ol class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>How does the Muslim poet Essahib-Gi\u00e9mal-Edden-Ben-Matroub portray Louis IX\u2019s attempt to conquer Egypt in the name of Christianity? How might a crusader, who believed the conquest of the Muslims was God\u2019s will, respond to this poem?<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>This account, critical of crusader actions, appears in a European text. What point does the author want to make by including this account? What does the poem\u2019s inclusion reveal about changing attitudes toward the Crusades?<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>What criticisms of the Crusades does Rutebeuf present in his poem? What is the non-crusader\u2019s attitude toward the clergy?<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>How does the crusader defend his actions? Do the two speakers agree on any points?<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Do you think the poet favors one perspective over the other? How would you characterize his attitude towards the Crusades? Why might the poet feel this way?<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">A Scottish King&#8217;s Last Request<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The fourteenth-century writer John Barbour has been called the father of Scottish poetry. Inspired by the French trouv\u00e8res and their poems of romance and chivalry, Barbour celebrated the deeds of the Scottish king Robert the Bruce and his companions in this poem, completed in 1375.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h5 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><a href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/nby_215100\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">John Barbour, &#8220;The Bruce, Being the Metrical History of Robert the Bruce King of Scots,&#8221; 160-161 (1489) <\/a><\/h5>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-jetpack-slideshow aligncenter\" data-effect=\"slide\"><div class=\"wp-block-jetpack-slideshow_container swiper-container\"><ul class=\"wp-block-jetpack-slideshow_swiper-wrapper swiper-wrapper\"><li class=\"wp-block-jetpack-slideshow_slide swiper-slide\"><figure><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"823\" height=\"809\" alt=\"Two-page spread of printed text.\" class=\"wp-block-jetpack-slideshow_image wp-image-13307\" data-id=\"13307\" src=\"https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Barbour_Bruce_pp160-161_mod.jpg\" srcset=\"https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Barbour_Bruce_pp160-161_mod.jpg 823w, https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Barbour_Bruce_pp160-161_mod-600x590.jpg 600w, https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Barbour_Bruce_pp160-161_mod-300x295.jpg 300w, https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Barbour_Bruce_pp160-161_mod-768x755.jpg 768w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 823px) 100vw, 823px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-block-jetpack-slideshow_caption gallery-caption\">John Barbour, &#8220;The Bruce, Being the Metrical History of Robert the Bruce King of Scots,&#8221; 160-161 (1489)<\/figcaption><\/figure><\/li><li class=\"wp-block-jetpack-slideshow_slide swiper-slide\"><figure><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"904\" height=\"712\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-block-jetpack-slideshow_image wp-image-20722\" data-id=\"20722\" src=\"https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/11\/Barbour_Bruce_-pp162-163_mod.jpg\" srcset=\"https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/11\/Barbour_Bruce_-pp162-163_mod.jpg 904w, https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/11\/Barbour_Bruce_-pp162-163_mod-300x236.jpg 300w, https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/11\/Barbour_Bruce_-pp162-163_mod-600x473.jpg 600w, https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/11\/Barbour_Bruce_-pp162-163_mod-768x605.jpg 768w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 904px) 100vw, 904px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-block-jetpack-slideshow_caption gallery-caption\">John Barbour, &#8220;The Bruce, Being the Metrical History of Robert the Bruce King of Scots,&#8221; 162-163 (1489)<\/figcaption><\/figure><\/li><\/ul><a class=\"wp-block-jetpack-slideshow_button-prev swiper-button-prev swiper-button-white\" role=\"button\"><\/a><a class=\"wp-block-jetpack-slideshow_button-next swiper-button-next swiper-button-white\" role=\"button\"><\/a><a aria-label=\"Pause Slideshow\" class=\"wp-block-jetpack-slideshow_button-pause\" role=\"button\"><\/a><div class=\"wp-block-jetpack-slideshow_pagination swiper-pagination swiper-pagination-white\"><\/div><\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-getwid-toggle has-icon-left\">\n<div class=\"wp-block-getwid-toggle__row\"><div class=\"wp-block-getwid-toggle__header-wrapper\"><span class=\"wp-block-getwid-toggle__header\"><a href=\"#\"><span class=\"wp-block-getwid-toggle__header-title\"><strong>Translation of &#8220;The Bruce&#8221;<\/strong><\/span><span class=\"wp-block-getwid-toggle__icon is-active\"><i class=\"fas fa-plus\"><\/i><\/span><span class=\"wp-block-getwid-toggle__icon is-passive\"><i class=\"fas fa-minus\"><\/i><\/span><\/a><\/span><\/div><div class=\"wp-block-getwid-toggle__content-wrapper\"><div class=\"wp-block-getwid-toggle__content\">\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Boo 20, Lines 157-202<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Therefore presently he sent letters to the lords of his country and they came as he bade them. Then before these lords and prelates, he made his testament, and to many religious bodies he gave money in great quantity for the saving of his soul.&nbsp; He provided right well for his soul, and when this was done, he said, \u201cSirs, so far as the day is gone with me that there is only one thing left, that is, without fear to meet death, as every man must needs do. I thank God that He has given me space to repent this in life, for through me and my wars there has been a great spilling of blood, and many an innocent man has been slain. Therefore I take this sickness and this pain as reward for my trespass.\u201d<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">\u201cMy heart was firmly fixed, for the saving of my sins, to make a crusade against God\u2019s enemies when I should come to prosperity. And since He now takes me to Him, so that the body cannot fulfill the device of the heart, I would that the heart, wherein that resolve was conceived, were sent thither. Therefore, I pray you, every one, that among you ye choose one who is honest, wise, doughty [fearless], and a noble knight of his hand, to carry my heart against the enemies of God, when my soul and body shall be parted. I would that it were brought there worthily, since God will not that I have the strength to go thither.\u201d<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.electricscotland.com\/history\/brucendx.htm\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Translated by George Eyre-Todd<\/a><\/p>\n<\/div><\/div><\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Robert the Bruce was born in 1274, and descended from Scots, Gaelic, and English nobility. In 1304 Bruce\u2019s father died and gave him a viable claim to the throne. Two years later, Bruce met with his rival John Comyn at Greyfriars Church in Dumfries. A fight broke out, daggers were drawn, and Bruce killed Comyn near the Church altar. To commit murder in a church was seen as sacrilege and a mortal, or serious, sin. The Pope excommunicated Bruce, but the Bishop of Glasgow in Scotland absolved (or forgave) him and made plans for Bruce to quickly take the throne, which he did in 1306. Edward I, King of England, challenged Bruce\u2019s claim to the Scottish throne, and the battle for Scottish independence continued until 1328 when the English king confirmed Scotland as a unique and independent kingdom with Robert at its head.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">In his quest for Scottish sovereignty, Bruce made a sacred vow that, if God would grant Scotland freedom from English rule, he would take up the cross. Bruce died on June 7, 1329, without making the journey. However, before his death, he asked that his heart be removed and carried in battle \u201cagainst God\u2019s foes\u201d on a crusade to the Holy Land, with eventual burial in Jerusalem in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. This gesture was his penance for breaking his sacred vow to go on crusade during his lifetime and to atone for his past sins, including the sacrilegious murder of John Comyn in the Greyfriars church.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Bruce\u2019s preserved heart was placed in a silver heart-shaped casket, which Sir James Douglas, his loyal subject, then carried on a chain around his neck. When a planned international crusade failed to occur, Douglas and his company of soldiers sailed to Spain where Alfonso XI of Castile was mounting a campaign against the Moorish (Muslim) kingdom of Granada. Douglas was killed in battle in 1330, and his body and the casket containing Bruce\u2019s embalmed heart were left on the field. However, they were found and conveyed back to Scotland and, in accordance with Bruce\u2019s written request, his heart was buried at Melrose Abbey in Roxburghshire, Scotland.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><em>Questions to Consider:<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n<ol class=\"wp-block-list\">\n<li>How does Robert Bruce\u2019s final wish that his heart be taken to the Church of the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem reflect the importance of the Crusades to medieval people?<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>How does the passage demonstrate the importance of oaths and vows? What role does loyalty play in the story? How do these values relate to the Crusades?<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-getwid-tabs__nav-link\"><span class=\"wp-block-getwid-tabs__title-wrapper\"><a href=\"#\"><span class=\"wp-block-getwid-tabs__title\">Sources<\/span><\/a><\/span><\/div><div class=\"wp-block-getwid-tabs__tab-content-wrapper\"><div class=\"wp-block-getwid-tabs__tab-content\">\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Motives, Organization, and Effects <\/h4>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">These documents offer insight into the religious and social motivations and benefits for undertaking a crusade and how the Crusades were both commemorated and criticized in literature and history for centuries after they had ended.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-columns is-layout-flex wp-container-core-columns-is-layout-995f960e wp-block-columns-is-layout-flex\">\n<div class=\"wp-block-column is-layout-flow wp-block-column-is-layout-flow\">\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><a href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/nby_607498\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\" noreferrer noopener\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"1024\" height=\"807\" src=\"https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Speech_of_Urban_pp4_5_mod-1024x807.jpg\" alt=\"Double-page spread of printed text. Pope Urban II\u2019s call for crusade to the Holy Land as recorded by Fulcher of Chartes, a priest who was thought to be present at the speech. His famous chronicle documents events he witnessed during the First Crusade to Constantinople.\" class=\"wp-image-13112\" srcset=\"https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Speech_of_Urban_pp4_5_mod-1024x807.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Speech_of_Urban_pp4_5_mod-300x236.jpg 300w, https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Speech_of_Urban_pp4_5_mod-scaled-600x473.jpg 600w, https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Speech_of_Urban_pp4_5_mod-768x605.jpg 768w, https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Speech_of_Urban_pp4_5_mod-1536x1210.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Speech_of_Urban_pp4_5_mod-2048x1614.jpg 2048w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\"><a href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/nby_607498\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Speech of Urban II at Claremont (November 26, 1095), <em>Translations and Reprints from the Original Sources of History<\/em>, (1984)<\/a><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-column is-layout-flow wp-block-column-is-layout-flow\">\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><a href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/nby_304925\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\" noreferrer noopener\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"1024\" height=\"839\" src=\"https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Joinville_Arabian_account_pp554_555_mod-1024x839.jpg\" alt=\"A Muslim poet\u2019s response to Louis IX\u2019s unsuccessful war on Egypt and defeat at al-Mansura in 1250, from Jean de Joinville\u2019s Life of Saint Louis.\" class=\"wp-image-13110\" srcset=\"https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Joinville_Arabian_account_pp554_555_mod-1024x839.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Joinville_Arabian_account_pp554_555_mod-300x246.jpg 300w, https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Joinville_Arabian_account_pp554_555_mod-scaled-600x491.jpg 600w, https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Joinville_Arabian_account_pp554_555_mod-768x629.jpg 768w, https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Joinville_Arabian_account_pp554_555_mod-1536x1258.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Joinville_Arabian_account_pp554_555_mod-2048x1678.jpg 2048w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\"><a href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/nby_304925\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Essahib-Gi\u00e9mal-Edden-Ben-Matroub &#8220;Words for the King, July 21, 1270,&#8221; in <em>Chronicles of the Crusades<\/em>, (1848)<\/a><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-column is-layout-flow wp-block-column-is-layout-flow\">\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><a href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/nby_544595\/Mills_Crusaders1_pp458_459.jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\" noreferrer noopener\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"1024\" height=\"852\" src=\"https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Mills_Crusaders1_pp458_459-1024x852.jpg\" alt=\"Two-page spread of printed tex with a poem in which a crusader argues with a non-crusader about the merits of going on crusade.\" class=\"wp-image-13109\" srcset=\"https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Mills_Crusaders1_pp458_459-1024x852.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Mills_Crusaders1_pp458_459-300x250.jpg 300w, https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Mills_Crusaders1_pp458_459-scaled-600x499.jpg 600w, https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Mills_Crusaders1_pp458_459-768x639.jpg 768w, https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Mills_Crusaders1_pp458_459-1536x1278.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Mills_Crusaders1_pp458_459-2048x1704.jpg 2048w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\"><a href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/nby_544595\/Mills_Crusaders1_pp458_459.jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Retubeuf, &#8220;The Crusaders&#8221; (1267) in <em>The History of the Crusades<\/em>, (1820)<\/a><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-columns is-layout-flex wp-container-core-columns-is-layout-995f960e wp-block-columns-is-layout-flex\">\n<div class=\"wp-block-column is-layout-flow wp-block-column-is-layout-flow\"><\/div>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-column is-layout-flow wp-block-column-is-layout-flow\">\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><a href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/nby_215100\/Barbour_Bruce_pp160-161_mod.jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\" noreferrer noopener\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"823\" height=\"809\" src=\"https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Barbour_Bruce_pp160-161_mod.jpg\" alt=\"Poem in middle English celebrating the deeds of Scottish king Robert the Bruce and his campions on crusade.\" class=\"wp-image-13307\" srcset=\"https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Barbour_Bruce_pp160-161_mod.jpg 823w, https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Barbour_Bruce_pp160-161_mod-600x590.jpg 600w, https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Barbour_Bruce_pp160-161_mod-300x295.jpg 300w, https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Barbour_Bruce_pp160-161_mod-768x755.jpg 768w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 823px) 100vw, 823px\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\"><a href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/nby_215100\/Barbour_Bruce_pp160-161_mod.jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">John Barbour, &#8220;<em>The Bruce, Being the Metrical History of Robert the Bruce King of Scots<\/em>,&#8221; (1489)<\/a><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-column is-layout-flow wp-block-column-is-layout-flow\"><\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Life During the Crusades<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">The crusades were seen as the ultimate act of Christian devotion which cost millions of people their lives. In addition to the enormous loss of life, the debt incurred and other economic costs associated with the multiple excursions to the Middle East impacted all levels of society, from individual families and villages, to budding nation-states.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-columns is-layout-flex wp-container-core-columns-is-layout-995f960e wp-block-columns-is-layout-flex\">\n<div class=\"wp-block-column is-layout-flow wp-block-column-is-layout-flow\">\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><a href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/nby_223688\/Les_chansons_de_croisade__pg_20-21_mod.jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\" noreferrer noopener\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"879\" height=\"752\" src=\"https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Les_chansons_de_croisade__pg_20-21_mod.jpg\" alt=\"Two-page spread of printed text from Les chansons de croisade.\" class=\"wp-image-13305\" srcset=\"https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Les_chansons_de_croisade__pg_20-21_mod.jpg 879w, https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Les_chansons_de_croisade__pg_20-21_mod-600x513.jpg 600w, https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Les_chansons_de_croisade__pg_20-21_mod-300x257.jpg 300w, https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Les_chansons_de_croisade__pg_20-21_mod-768x657.jpg 768w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 879px) 100vw, 879px\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\"><a href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/nby_223688\/Les_chansons_de_croisade__pg_20-21_mod.jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Anonymous, &#8220;You Who Love,&#8221; <em>Les chansons de croisade<\/em>, (1189)<\/a><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-column is-layout-flow wp-block-column-is-layout-flow\">\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><a href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/nby_607498-2\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\" noreferrer noopener\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"711\" height=\"916\" src=\"https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Privileges_granted_pg_12-13_mod.jpg\" alt=\"List of privileges granted by Pope Eugene III to crusades in 1146.\" class=\"wp-image-13306\" style=\"aspect-ratio:1;object-fit:cover\" srcset=\"https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Privileges_granted_pg_12-13_mod.jpg 711w, https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Privileges_granted_pg_12-13_mod-300x386.jpg 300w, https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Privileges_granted_pg_12-13_mod-600x773.jpg 600w, https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Privileges_granted_pg_12-13_mod-233x300.jpg 233w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 711px) 100vw, 711px\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\"><a href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/nby_607498-2\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">&#8220;Privileges Granted by [Pope] Eugene III, 1146&#8221; <em>Translations and Reprints from the Original Sources of History<\/em>, (1984)<\/a><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-column is-layout-flow wp-block-column-is-layout-flow\">\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><a href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/nby_304925-2\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\" noreferrer noopener\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"1024\" height=\"864\" src=\"https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Joinville_List_of_knights_pp532_533-1024x864.jpg\" alt=\"Two-page spread of printed text listing the names and terms of agreement of the knights who accompanied Louis IX of France on his first crusade.\" class=\"wp-image-13111\" srcset=\"https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Joinville_List_of_knights_pp532_533-1024x864.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Joinville_List_of_knights_pp532_533-300x253.jpg 300w, https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Joinville_List_of_knights_pp532_533-scaled-600x506.jpg 600w, https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Joinville_List_of_knights_pp532_533-768x648.jpg 768w, https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Joinville_List_of_knights_pp532_533-1536x1296.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Joinville_List_of_knights_pp532_533-2048x1728.jpg 2048w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\"><a href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/nby_304925-2\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Jean de Joinville, &#8220;Knights Who Accompanied Saint Louis in his Expedition to Palestine,&#8221; (1217)<em> Chronicles of the Crusades<\/em>,(1848)<\/a><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-columns is-layout-flex wp-container-core-columns-is-layout-995f960e wp-block-columns-is-layout-flex\">\n<div class=\"wp-block-column is-layout-flow wp-block-column-is-layout-flow\">\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-full\"><a href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/nby_304925-3\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\" noreferrer noopener\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"381\" height=\"584\" src=\"https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Crusaders-Saracens.jpg\" alt=\"Reproduction of a colored medieval manuscript illustration showing three white European knights in armor on horses talking to three bearded, darker-skinned men on foot. The darker-skinned men are barefoot and wear long tunics.\" class=\"wp-image-13308\" style=\"aspect-ratio:3\/2;object-fit:cover\" srcset=\"https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Crusaders-Saracens.jpg 381w, https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Crusaders-Saracens-300x460.jpg 300w, https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Crusaders-Saracens-196x300.jpg 196w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 381px) 100vw, 381px\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\"><a href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/nby_304925-3\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">&#8220;Crusaders &amp; Saracens in Conference,&#8221; <em>Chronicles of the Crusades<\/em> (1848)<\/a><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-column is-layout-flow wp-block-column-is-layout-flow\">\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><a href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/nby_377864\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\" noreferrer noopener\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"653\" height=\"1024\" src=\"https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Frontispiece_Historie_of_Holy_Warre_modified-653x1024.jpg\" alt=\"Frontispiece with large engraved image. It shows a depiction of the Crusades that emphasizes how many people died. Men walk down a twisting path on the left-hand side of the image, and many are killed by angels and men wearing turbans on the right. At the top left of the image is a bucket labeled &quot;We went out full.&quot; At the top right of the image is a bucket labeled &quot;But return empty.&quot; Above this image are two portraits, on the left a European knight in armor, and on the right, an Ottoman soldier wearing a breastplate and turban.\" class=\"wp-image-13108\" style=\"aspect-ratio:3\/2;object-fit:cover\" srcset=\"https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Frontispiece_Historie_of_Holy_Warre_modified-653x1024.jpg 653w, https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Frontispiece_Historie_of_Holy_Warre_modified-300x471.jpg 300w, https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Frontispiece_Historie_of_Holy_Warre_modified-600x941.jpg 600w, https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Frontispiece_Historie_of_Holy_Warre_modified-191x300.jpg 191w, https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Frontispiece_Historie_of_Holy_Warre_modified-768x1205.jpg 768w, https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Frontispiece_Historie_of_Holy_Warre_modified.jpg 842w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 653px) 100vw, 653px\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\"><a href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/nby_377864\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Thomas Fuller, <em>Historie of the Holy Warre<\/em>, frontispiece (1639)<\/a><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><\/p>\n<\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-getwid-tabs__nav-link\"><span class=\"wp-block-getwid-tabs__title-wrapper\"><a href=\"#\"><span class=\"wp-block-getwid-tabs__title\">Further Reading<\/span><\/a><\/span><\/div><div class=\"wp-block-getwid-tabs__tab-content-wrapper\"><div class=\"wp-block-getwid-tabs__tab-content\">\n<h4 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Further Reading<\/h4>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Riley-Smith, Jonathan, and Louise Riley-Smith. <em>The Crusades: Idea and Reality, 1095\u20131274<\/em>. London: Edward Arnold, 1981.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Riley-Smith, Jonathan. \u201cCrusading as an Act of Love.\u201d <em>Journal of the Historical Association<\/em> 65 (June 1980): 177\u2013192.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Riley-Smith, Jonathan, ed.&nbsp;<em>Oxford Illustrated History of the Crusades<\/em>. 2001.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\">Harf-Lancner, Laurence. \u201cRutebeuf Chantre de la Croisade? La Disputation du Croise et du Decroise.\u201d <em>Synergies<\/em> 2 (2007): 19\u201328. <a target=\"_blank\" href=\"http:\/\/ressources-cla.univ-fcomte.fr\/gerflint\/Inde2\/laurence.pdf\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">http:\/\/ressources-cla.univ-fcomte.fr\/gerflint\/Inde2\/laurence.pdf<\/a>.<\/p>\n<\/div><\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n\n<p class=\"wp-block-paragraph\"><\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>What were Western Christian religious beliefs, political relationships, and personal values during the Middle Ages? How did the motives, organization, and effects of the Crusades change over time? How have writers from the eleventh century on criticized the Crusaders\u2019 goals and actions?<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":13308,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_acf_changed":false,"_monsterinsights_skip_tracking":false,"_jetpack_newsletter_access":"","_jetpack_dont_email_post_to_subs":false,"_jetpack_newsletter_tier_id":0,"_jetpack_memberships_contains_paywalled_content":false,"_jetpack_feature_clip_id":0,"_jetpack_memberships_contains_paid_content":false,"footnotes":"","jetpack_post_was_ever_published":false},"categories":[122,89,83,164],"tags":[166],"class_list":["post-14390","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-13th-century","category-17th-century","category-19th-century","category-collection-essays","tag-world-history"],"acf":[],"jetpack_sharing_enabled":true,"jetpack_featured_media_url":"https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Crusaders-Saracens.jpg","_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/posts\/14390","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Fcomments&post=14390"}],"version-history":[{"count":13,"href":"https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/posts\/14390\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":24088,"href":"https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/posts\/14390\/revisions\/24088"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/media\/13308"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Fmedia&parent=14390"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Fcategories&post=14390"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/dcc.newberry.org\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Ftags&post=14390"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}